Transformational Grammar (TG) Definition and Examples

Transformational Grammar (TG) Definition and Examples Transformational grammar is a theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language by linguistic transformations and phrase structures. Also known as  transformational-generative grammar or T-G or TGG. Following the publication of Noam Chomskys book Syntactic Structures in 1957, transformational grammar dominated the field of linguistics for the next few decades. The era of Transformational-Generative Grammar, as it is called, signifies a sharp break with the linguistic tradition of the first half of the [twentieth] century both in Europe and America because, having as its principal objective the formulation of a finite set of basic and transformational rules that explain how the native speaker of a language can generate and comprehend all its possible grammatical sentences, it focuses mostly on syntax and not on phonology or morphology, as structuralism does (Encyclopedia of Linguistics,  2005). Observations The new linguistics, which began in 1957 with the publication of Noam Chomskys Syntactic Structures, deserves the label revolutionary. After 1957, the study of grammar would no longer be limited to what is said and how it is interpreted. In fact, the word grammar itself took on a new meaning. The new linguistics defined grammar as our innate, subconscious ability to generate language, an internal system of rules that constitutes our human language capacity. The goal of the new linguistics was to describe this internal grammar.Unlike the structuralists, whose goal was to examine the sentences we actually speak and to describe their systemic nature, the transformationalists wanted to unlock the secrets of language: to build a model of our internal rules, a model that would produce all of the grammatical- and no ungrammatical- sentences. (M. Kolln and R. Funk, Understanding English Grammar. Allyn and Bacon, 1998)[F]rom the word go, it has often been clear that Transformational Grammar w as the best available theory of language structure, while lacking any clear grasp of what distinctive claims the theory made about human language. (Geoffrey Sampson, Empirical Linguistics. Continuum, 2001) Surface Structures and Deep Structures When it comes to syntax, [Noam] Chomsky is famous for proposing that beneath every sentence in the mind of a speaker is an invisible, inaudible deep structure, the interface to the mental lexicon. The deep structure is converted by transformational rules into a surface structure that corresponds more closely to what is pronounced and heard. The rationale is that certain constructions, if they were listed in the mind as surface structures, would have to be multiplied out in thousands of redundant variations that would have to have been learned one by one, whereas if the constructions were listed as deep structures, they would be simple, few in number, and economically learned. (Steven Pinker, Words and Rules. Basic Books, 1999) Transformational Grammar and the Teaching of Writing Though it is certainly true, as many writers have pointed out, that sentence-combining exercises existed before the advent of transformational grammar, it should be evident that the transformational concept of embedding gave sentence combining a theoretical foundation upon which to build. By the time Chomsky and his followers moved away from this concept, sentence combining had enough momentum to sustain itself. (Ronald F. Lunsford, Modern Grammar and Basic Writers. Research in Basic Writing: A Bibliographic Sourcebook, ed. by Michael G. Moran and Martin J. Jacobi. Greenwood Press, 1990) The Transformation of Transformational Grammar Chomsky initially justified replacing phrase-structure grammar by arguing that it was awkward, complex, and incapable of providing adequate accounts of language. Transformational grammar offered a simple and elegant way to understand language, and it offered new insights into the underlying psychological mechanisms.As the grammar matured, however, it lost its simplicity and much of its elegance. In addition, transformational grammar has been plagued by Chomskys ambivalence and ambiguity regarding meaning. . . . Chomsky continued to tinker with transformational grammar, changing the theories and making it more abstract and in many respects more complex, until all but those with specialized training in linguistics were befuddled. . . .[T]he tinkering failed to solve most of the problems because Chomsky refused to abandon the idea of deep structure, which is at the heart of T-G grammar but which also underlies nearly all of its problems. Such complaints have fueled the paradigm shift to cognitive grammar. (James D. Williams, The Teachers Grammar Book. Lawrence Erlbaum, 1999) In the years since transformational grammar was formulated, it has gone through a number of changes. In the most recent version, Chomsky (1995) has eliminated many of the transformational rules in previous versions of the grammar and replaced them with broader rules, such as a rule that moves one constituent from one location to another. It was just this kind of rule on which the trace studies were based. Although newer versions of the theory differ in several respects from the original, at a deeper level they share the idea that syntactic structure is at the heart of our linguistic knowledge. However, this view has been controversial within linguistics. (David W. Carroll, Psychology of Language, 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2008)

To what extend does Mozi's philosophy conflicts with the Confucianism Essay

To what extend does Mozi's philosophy conflicts with the Confucianism - Essay Example The spread of Mohism began taking place when the traditional Chinese priest craft was challenged by the emerging technical intelligence. Mozi is believed to have been drawn to prominence by the rising demand of scholars during the era of the Warring States. There are other accounts that depict him as a fortifications officer in the military while the numerous criticisms demonstrate that he was conversant with the Confucian priesthood (Hansen, 2009). Although there is very few literature that talks about Mozi, majority of them depict him as having been against Confucianism. One of Mozi’s greatest critics was Mencius (371-289 BC) who claimed that the writings of Mozi were all over the social media and for that reason, most people were influenced to believe in his distorted view of Confucianism. Mozi is believed to have been a strong advocate of utilitarianism and equal concern for each individual. The Mohist movement, which had begun with Mozi in later stages led to a much newer fashion of Daoism and Confucianism. The central Mohist literature has an intended argumentative style. It utilizes an unprejudiced symmetry of expression and repetition that makes it easy to memorize as well as in passing along the message. Symmetry and repetition are commonly used stylistic devices for classical Chinese and it is mostly in analytical form (Mei, 2008). Various books document the life of Mozi and his works. Nearly all of the available works explain Mozi’s story in the light of the â€Å"craft theory† since it helps in explaining the unique personality of well-organized logical thought in China that had its roots in Mozi. These pieces of literature mostly dwell on moral debates but mostly focus on the entire Mohist system to which they credit Mozi as having been the founder. Mozi, according to the available literature believed that the moral standards should be in a measurable form, e.g., in the manner of a carpenter with a plumb line or

Does Stendhal have anything important to tell us about love Essay

Does Stendhal have anything important to tell us about love - Essay Example In this paper, the contribution of Stendhal towards love as a topic and a writing theme will be analyzed, judging his writings from the eyes of analysts and critics. In his book on love, Stendhal attempted to make a rational analysis of human emotions, feelings and attitudes towards each other. To make a complete analysis of love and the way it impacts on different people and leaders, Stendhal analyzed four main types of love. According to Stendhal, love can be categorized based on the individual feeling, impact it has on the people and the input that sustains it. Passionate love was initially developed by the Portuguese nuns according to Stendhal and exists between individuals, families and even social groupings. The bond that brings together families and members of a given society, religious group or even political grouping is associated with the passionate attraction that they develop through constant interaction. Families, for example, are determined to protect and provide for their members as a way of showing that their existence goes beyond a social grouping, but a manifestation of passionate love shared (Toker, 2014, p.251). On the other hand, mannered love has its origin in Paris and has been captured in different French memoirs and stories including those involving chamfer and lauzun. Artists have attempted to illustrate the mannered love using different tools including the rosy hues that have no spot to show negativity and ill feelings. Whatsoever is unpleasant in mannered love will result into a breach of the better taste and etiquette that has been developed from this kind of love (Foster, 2014, p311). Any individual who attempts to nurture such kinds of love must first ensure that the rituals and stages involved are observed and followed. According to Stendhal, Mannered love results into more intense

Theology and arts reflection paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Theology and arts reflection paper - Essay Example This is due to their perceived insubordination to the government, which is attributed to their subscription to an alien Westernized culture. Apparently this culture is synonymously equated with the Christian faith (EndÃ…  and Johnston 31). The persecution of the foreign missionaries alongside their Japanese Christian faithful is thus traced back to the Japanese emperor’s concern about the Christianized Japanese inequality loyalty. This is in favor of the foreign Christian emissaries and to the defiance of the government’s directives. In addition, Japanese cultural ethnicity had a cognitively entrenched religious identity in form of Buddhism, which formed part of the Japanese ethnic identity (EndÃ…  and Johnston 18). Contrarily, Christianity challenged some of the religious ordinances of the Japanese tradition such as Buddhism due to their contravention with Christianity dogma teaching against idolatry. This was subsequently viewed as an attempt by the Japanese ethnic conservatism to obliterate and substitute Japanese ethnicity with Western European identity. On the other hand, the film â€Å"Mission† posits a purely evangelization missionary approach aimed at spreading Christianity as an integral part of the South American Gulani community cultural identity. The evangelism aspect of the missionary work amongst the Gulani community is exhibited by the mutual and harmonious coexistence between Christians and non-Christians groups. In addition, challenges to the Christian faith within the Gulani community exclusively come from forces outside the Gulani’s geopolitical locality such as the Portuguese. This is accompanied with minimum or no resistance experienced within the community’s multiethnic groups (Morricone). Evangelism missionary approach amongst the Gulani community is thus directed towards the exclusive substitution of the pagan religious dogma of the

International HRM Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International HRM - Case Study Example Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world. (Website: http://www.globalization101.org/What_is_Globalization.html Globalization makes use of modern technological advancements and also focuses on the quick transfer of technology, to keep with the changing world. Therefore, Globalization is a phenomenon that charges towards progress and engulfs the whole world, in this process. The development in technology has led to the process of Cloning and other artificial forms of life. Today, we have hybrid varieties of fruits and vegetables being imported from various parts of the world; which truly symbolises globalization. The widespread Globalization has led to the free movement and transfer of goods, capital, technology and people, from one hemisphere to the other. Therefore, there is an influx of numerous commodities across the globe. BACKGROUND INFORMATION International Human Resources Management has gained immense importance today, thanks to the development of foreign policies, foreign relations and globalisation. Foreign Trade has received great impetus due to these factors and companies looking towards expanding their organisations are employing norms and policies to facilitate proper monitoring and maintenance of their employees. Due to growth in commerce and management, strategy planning and execution has become an integral part of organisation. Due to this, International Human Resources Management has come to the forefront. International Human Resources Management seeks to lay down common rules, solutions to problems and personnel management systems to help this new phase of global expansion transform into a success story and to help organisations adapt and procure better results. Working in a country that one is not familiar with, is a great challenge in itself. More so, when it involves the establishment of a branch office of your company or deals with the successful initiation of an extension of your company, in a scenario completely different from the one you are familiar with. Heading these operations that delve into international horizons and expansion plans of your company build up more responsibility that needs to be fulfilled, on your part. Therefore, a great amount of thought-processing and execution must go down into such plans, before embarking on a conclusion. Appar8tus is a US-owned company that has been producing medical tools used in surgery since 1972 and has

Final paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Final - Research Paper Example Though the law enforcement officials have tried their best to set forth strict regulations and norms but the crime rate in this particular city is considered to be five times higher in comparison to national average as per 2005 statistics. According to CQ Press’s City Crime Rankings, Indianapolis was rated 33rd as the most dangerous city. The rate of crime has increased dramatically in this city and there are around 52.2 per 100,000 forcible rapes taking place in the city. This study would not only deal with the homicide cases that are prevalent in Indianapolis but would also highlight other criminal cases which is taking place in the famous city. The major aim of this research study is to outline certain policies which would prevent such criminal instances that are violating the overall environment of Indianapolis. This study would be conducted from the perspective of a criminologist serving for the Task Force which has been framed by the Mayor of the city so as to reduce the rate of violence witnessed by the city. On the other hand the research study will also reveal the potential causes for the violence and the trend of violence so as to formulate appropriate policies for violence reduction. The study would encompass a critical analysis of the increasing trend of violence in Indianapolis. The research aim and objectives form the basis on which the entire study is conducted. This study would be based on behavioral analysis of the increasing violence which is taking place in Indianapolis. The major aim of the study is to analyze the various forms of crimes occurring in the city and to set forth policies in order to reduce the rate of violence. The objectives of the research study are: The research question for the study would be – â€Å"what are the potential causes behind such rising criminal cases in Indianapolis and what can be the most appropriate policies in order to reduce such

Research Theory & Skills for Sport Management Module Paper

Theory & Skills for Sport Management Module - Research Paper Example and sports are not performing in the required way owing to the fact the level of management is quite wanting and so the need to act as fast as possible to therefore save the situation. The methodology used in the study has included the designs, the participants, and the instruments. This study is therefore aimed at determining the drinks’ various ways to come up with management strategies for the better of sports. It is also important to highlight that this paper has specified coherently the procedures and the results of the study. The study has been summarized with a clear conclusion (Paul, Alistair and Trudo, 2009, page 341). It is important to highlight that this research paper delves in the discussion of the theory and the required skills and theories that are quite ideal in the management of sports. The paper has been segmented into various sections so as to make it quite neat and that it is easily understood (Peter, 2009, page 92). It is fundamental to highlight there are various gaps that exist in this study. For instance, most researchers have always neglected researching on the challenges as well as the wrongs that go unrevealed in the sports docket thereby burying the prosperity of sports in various countries. This is because that category of people does not always have an organized set up that can facilitate a study, they always want to be at the top and no piece of advice can be accorded to them due to their arrogance and ignorance (Paul, Janet, Jerom, Lucie, 2011, page 538). In the discussion of the background of the study topic, it is important to highlight that sports management is very much significant in the improvement of the sports in various state and regions of the world. Management is the disciplined action that one undertakes a measure in a more responsible way to care for a given item or role. In sports management therefore, it is important to highlight the fact that this is the measure that is taken by either an individual or several